Analyse the Role and Use of Initial and Diagnostic Assessment in Agreeing Individual Learning Goals

Initial AssessmentAll learners are entitled to undergo a period of initial assessment. Initial assessment is the process of identifying an individual’s learning and support needs to enable the design of an individual learning plan which will provide the structure for their learning. In other words, it determines the learner’s starting point for their learning programme.Learning need are the skills, knowledge and competence which a learner needs to acquire during the course of their learning programme. Support needs are the additional help that a learner requires to enable; them to address barriers which may otherwise prevent them from fulfilling their learning programme. Initial assessment is a critical process because it represents the first stage in the learning cycle. Failure to accurately identify an individual’s learning needs may result in a learning plan and a learning programme, which does not address learning needs. The subsequent evaluation of learning and training is unlikely therefore to show any benefit to the learner. Initial assessment commences at point of entry, from the contact with the prospective leaner and continues until the point that of the individual learning plan is completed. Further learning and support needs will inevitably be identified through the review process and should be reflected in updates to individual learning plans. Initial assessment should take place over a number of days or weeks. It should not be confined to one session. The result from the initial would indicate what level of Maths and English the learner is working towards in which they are be enrolled on.DiagnosticOnce a learner has completed the initial assessment their level has been set. They will then continue to complete a diagnostic. A distinct form of measurement. Its purpose is to ascertain, prior to instruction, each student’s strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and skills. Establishing these permits the instructor to remediate students and adjust the curriculum to meet each learner’s unique needs. Therefore, gives a more detail breakdown of what the learner would need to improve on to enable them to achieve the current level set. The student should complete a brief essay explaining why it is important to identify and meet the individual needs of learners and how to use initial and diagnostic assessment in agreeing individual learning goals. (350 words minimum).

M4A1 PART A Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

M4A1 PART A - Essay Example Schein (2010) has rightly affirmed that a common pattern of basic assumptions should be shared among the group members so that they can effectively solve the problems; when everyone has the same set of values and norms, then internal integration and external adaptation becomes easier and it has worked positively for the overall organization. The new members of an organization should be taught the same way of perceiving, thinking and feeling about the problems so that the conflicts are avoided. Hence, it is stated by Schein that an effective manager has to ensure that he/she advances in the organizational studies by observing the real behavior of the workforce which are labeled as values, assumptions and artifacts (Bohlander & Snell, 2007). According to Jung et al. (2009), Schein categorized the signals of cultures and subcultures in three stages; the first stage is known as ‘artifacts’ which are the attributes that are evident as they can be heard, felt and seen such as dressing style, communication medium, tone of voice, stories and etc. Artifacts are in the form of company’s mission, slogans, written communication mediums and slogans; all of them are easy for observation but challenging for deciphering (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). The second stage is known as ‘values’ which is slightly complicated in nature but are observable to a certain extent. For instance, during the interview process, a manager can make some judgment about the candidate’s values by observing him/her. Finally, in the third stage which is known as ‘basic assumptions’ are the most difficult ones to be observed as they are deeply embedded in the person’s behavior. They behavior becomes evident when the person starts working in the organization. Hence, all of these stages combine to define the attention aspect for the HR manager because it

DERIVATIVES MARKETS Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

DERIVATIVES MARKETS - Assignment Example Since the securities are listed and traded in the stock exchange, the secondary market is also called the stock market. In primary market, companies interact with investors directly while in the secondary market investors interact with themselves. In both cases, the capital market intermediaries play an important role .The secondary market, based on all available information, determines the price and risk of the issued securities, it provides useful signals to both listed companies and investors to act in the primary markets. The secondary market may also include the over the counter market and the derivatives market. In the stock market share prices are determined by the demand and supply forces. On the other hand, in the over the counter market prices are negotiated between the buyer and the seller. The derivatives market deals in futures and options. In the derivatives markets, securities or portfolios of securities are traded for future delivery. In case of options, the future de livery is conditional as the buyer has a right to exercise or not to exercise the option. The derivatives market and my proposed derivative product The emergence of new markets for derivatives such as forwards and futures can be traced back to the willingness of risk adverse economic agents to protect themselves against uncertainties occurring from price fluctuations in various asset categories. Naturally, financial markets are very volatile. Through derivative products, however, it is possible to fully or partially transfer price risks by locking in prices of assets. By doing so derivative products reduce the impact of fluctuations in prices of assets on the cash flow and profitability situation of risk averse investors (Morrison and Winston 34). The derivative instruments are in use by all business sections, for instance, corporates, SMEs, financial institutions, banks and retail investors. My motivation for this derivative is the ability to trade while conserving the environment through the hampering of the big problem of global warming which is getting worse as firms continue to produce. The trading is also focused on trading carbon credits with the aim of controlling or reducing pollutants produced from business activities of firms. Therefore, the central driver of carbon emissions trading would be the impact on the climate and the degradation of the environment as a result of emissions of various gases. The immaturity of this market of derivatives also gives hope that there is a growth potential for this business. Currently there are smaller numbers of firms that offer such certificates. An appropriate pricing model for derivatives on the carbon emission certificates is certainly the first step in coming up with the derivative there is need to investigate the price dynamics. Product Design and Specifications The proposed derivative is a futures contract. Via the American Climate Exchange (ACX) carbon derivatives will be based upon 3 types of carbon relat ed units. The following table gives an overview of my product in terms of price, quantity, unit of underlying asset, maturity date, delivery policy, margin requirement and daily settlement and transaction costs. Type Carbon Emission Derivation: futures contract Trading Units 1000 carbon dioxide EUA allowances, with each allowance allowing 1 tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent gas Minimum trading 1 lot Strike Price Intervals Quotation US dollar per metric tonne Minimum Tick $ 0.01 per tonne Minimum price flux $0.01

The Movie Dead Man and its Departure from the Western Genre :: Movie Film Essays

The Movie Dead Man and its Departure from the Western Genre Put simply, genres are not created by directors so much as they are by audiences. Once it is apparent that something has been received well by theatre-goers, a formula is developed and henceforth followed to achieve the same success. Considering the Western genre, as presented by Robert Warshow, one may note whisky-swilling gunslingers, prostitutes alongside their madams, and arguments over poker tables in smoke filled saloons resulting in someone being thrown through the glass window. The hero of the Western, personified so well by Gary Cooper, John Wayne, and Clint Eastwood, draws his six-shooter fast and is lethally accurate. Unfortunately, these audience-drawing regularities which, while entertaining, undermine the historical representation of how America’s West was truly settled. The most jarring difference from the Western genre in Dead Man is that the hero, William Blake, does not saunter into town with a pistol on his hip, let alone know how to shoot one. He is an accountant from Cleveland, a rational man headed for an irrational world. Machine, the town which was his destination, is a menacing mill town which comments on the harsh realities of industrialization. Blake’s train ride to the West is in vain, having been refused the job promised to him in a letter because he was tardy in response. There is an absence of order in town, in large part because John Dickinson, owner of the Metal Works plant the towns economy depends on, is insane, possibly parodying the ineptitude of capitalistic hierarchy. Jim Jarmusch’s choice of William Blake as the name of his main character was not by accident. The jovial Indian Nobody is convinced that Blake is the English poet by the same name, and for good reason. Not because Depp’s Blake resembles the actual poet, but because William Blake’s poetic themes can be recognized throughout the story. Also, Jarmusch’s use of fade to black to separate the scenes transforms each scene into a new poem that can be read and viewed as a new development in the film. Critics consider Jarmusch’s departure from the Western genre as a breath of fresh air. Dennis Schwartz claims â€Å"Jarmusch didn't falsely romanticize the Western settler and idolize him for how good he was with a gun as most films foolishly do; but, he debunked that whole Western John Ford type of patronizing liberal myth that the cowboy was doing all that violence to advance civilization, that if the Indian can be civilized he can and should live with the white man.

Laboratory Techniques and Measurements

Name: Kensley Shelley|Date: 9-17-12| Exp 2: Laboratory Techniques & Measurements|Lab Section: 0000| Data Tables: Step 1: Length and Measurements Object Measured|Length in cm|Length in mm| Key|5. 15 cm|51. 5 mm| CD|12. 0 cm|120. 0 mm| Fork Spoon|18. 05 cm 16. 30 cm|180. 5 mm 163. 0 mm| Step 2: Warm Temperature Measurements Hot tap water temperature49. 50_? C Boiling water temperature __immediately:104. 5; after 5 minutes: 103. 0__? C Step 3: Cold Temperature Measurements Cold tap water temperature_24. 5_? C Ice water temperature after 1 min:4. 5, after 5 min:1. 0 ? C Step 4: Volume MeasurementsVolume of half filled graduated cylinder__12. 5__mL Volume of completely filled small test tube __n/a__mL Number of drops in 1 mL___14_drops Volume of the micro pipet __28__ drops_2___mL Step 6: Density Measurements Part A Mass of empty graduated cylinder_16. 9_g Mass of graduated cylinder and water 21. 1_g Net mass of the water __4. 2_g Density of the water_0. 84_ g/mL Part B Mass of graduated cylinder and alcohol _20. 4_g Net mass of the alcohol __3. 5_g Density of the alcohol__0. 7__ g/mL Part C Mass of graduated cylinder and salt solution ____g Net mass of the salt solution____gDensity of the salt solution____ g/mL Part D Volume of half filled graduated cylinder__8. 0__mL Volume of half filled graduated cylinder and metal bolt_9. 1__mL Volume of the metal bolt_1. 1_mL Mass of the metal bolt __7. 2__g Density of the metal bolt__6. 55__g/mL Part E Mass of half filled beaker__89. 0__g Mass of water displaced by metal bolt__90. 1__g Volume of the metal bolt__1. 1__cc Density of the metal bolt__6. 55__g/cc Mass of half filled beaker__89. 0__g Mass of water displaced by magnet__89. 8__g Volume of the magnet _0. _cc Mass of the magnet __4. 0_g Mass when dropping the magnet in the beaker__92. 9__g Density of the magnet__5. 00__g/cc Calculated volume of the magnet using dimensions of length x width x height__0. 78__cc Density of magnet using the calculated volume_5. 13___g/cc C onclusion: Questions and Problems: A. Which method of determining density is more accurate, the water displacement method in Part D or Archimedes’ principle method in Part E? Why? For the metal bolt, I received the same answer for both experiments, so I would say both were equally accurate in my experiment.B. What is the relationship between mL and cm3? They equal each other; mL = cc C. Everyone knows that water is supposed to boil at 100 ° C. Why did your water sample boil at a different temperature? Water boils at different temperatures depending on the altitude. The higher pressure in the air keeps the molecules from escaping as easily. D. To help you get a feel for metric measurements, you need to know the relative magnitude of a few basic measurements. For example: 1 mm = thickness of a dime, a penny weighs 2 ? grams, and 20 °C = normal room temperature. Determine the following: . What is the mass in kilograms (kg) of a person who weighs 143 lb? 64. 86 kg 2. What wei ghs approximately 1 g? dollar bill, paper clip 3. What is approximately 1 cm long, wide or thick? fingernail is 1 cm wide 4. What weighs about 100 g? 20 nickels, 40 pennies 5. What weighs about 1000 g? 1 liter of water Conclusion: The experiment was designed to help acquaint the student with proper laboratory measurements and techniques. This was done by allowing the student to use the different lab tools in a variety of ways, such as: heating, measurements, volume, and density.In completing this lab, I am better aware of the different tools which will be used and how to properly use them, because a slight mistake in measuring can skew your data. I witnessed this in the density calculations in that the wrong mass or volume could greatly skew the results of the density. I first recorded 7. 6 g as the mass for the metal bolt, but on second glance I realized it was only 7. 2 g. While this may not seem significant at first, having a difference of 0. 4 g is very significant in determinin g the correct density. I also observed how important it is to account for one uncertain digit.When measuring items using the cm side of the ruler, I had to account for an uncertain digit when it measured in between two lines. Accounting for this uncertain digit helps to gain a more accurate reading. Also, reading at the bottom of the meniscus is also very important when measuring. When I first used the beaker, I did not get down to eye level and therefore I could not properly see the meniscus, but after putting it to eye level, I could see that I was slightly off on my measurement. I also learned how to determine the mass of certain objects that are not easily measured.I did so by first measuring the cylinder's mass and then measuring the mass of the cylinder with the liquid in it. I was then able to subtract the two and get a good measurement of the mass of the liquid. Another technique practiced was using displaced water to determine the volume and subsequently the density of an o bject. By putting the object on a string and placing it in the water, I was able to record the mass of the displaced water (90. 1 g), which i was then able to convert to the volume of the object (1. 1 mL). This number along with the mass of the object (7. g), could then be converted to the density of the object (6. 55 g/cc). There were a few potential errors that could have occurred while preforming the experiments. First, when calibrating my at home scale, I had to place an object that was 500 g on the scale. While I believe the object I placed on it was close to that mass, it could have been off slightly which could have skewed my results. Also, there is always the possibility of miscalculations when I was determining the volume of the magnet using the ruler. There is always the chance of miss counting something which can led to inaccurate results. Laboratory Techniques and Measurements Measurement:Length, Mass, Volume, Density, and Time Peter Jeschofnig, Ph. D. Version 42-0267-00-01 Lab RepoRt assistant This document is not meant to be a substitute for a formal laboratory report. The Lab Report Assistant is simply a summary of the experiment’s questions, diagrams if needed, and data tables that should be addressed in a formal lab report. The intent is to facilitate students’ writing of lab reports by providing this information in an editable file which can be sent to an instructor. Data Table 1: Estimation of various measurements| Measurement| Estimated| Actual| % Error| Length (m)| | | | Time (s)| | | |Mass (g)| | | | Data Table 2: Measurement of an object using various instruments| | Length(cm)| Width(cm)| Height(cm)| Volume(cm3)| Object Being Measured:| | | | | Hand (hand units)| | | | | Hand (cm)| | | | | Ruler| | | | | Meter tape| | | | | Data Table 3: Measurement of an object using various instruments| | Length(cm)| Width(cm)| Height(cm)| Volume (cm3)| Object Being Measured:| | | | | Hand (hand units)| | | | | Hand (cm)| | | | | Ruler| | | | | Meter tape| | | | | Data Table 4: Measurement of an object using various instruments| | Length(cm)| Width(cm)| Height(cm)| Volume(cm3)| Object Being Measured:| | | | |Hand (hand units)| | | | | Hand (cm)| | | | | Ruler| | | | | Meter tape| | | | | Data Table 5: Determination of ? | Object| DiameterD(cm)| CircumferenceC(cm)| Slope| % Error| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Data Table 6: Density measurements| Method| Volume of water in graduated cylinder (mL)| Volume of water+ bolt(mL)| Volume of bolt (mL)| Mass of bolt in air (g)| Mass of bolt in water (g)| Mass of bolt â€Å"lost† in water (g)| Density orS. G. ofbolt(g/mL)S. G. =unitless| Water- displacement method| | | | | | | | Archimedes’ principle method| | | | | | | | Data Table 7: Time measurements using visual cues| Drop time (s)| Trial 1| | Trial 2| | Trial 3| | Average| | Data Table 8: Time meas urements using auditory cues| | Drop time (s)| Trial 1| | Trial 2| | Trial 3| | Average| | Questions Exercise 1: Estimation of Various Measurements A. Why is it important to correctly estimate length, time, and mass? Exercise 2: Measuring Using Instruments of Varying Degrees of Precision A. Can you think of an occasion when it would be adequate to use your â€Å"hand† measurement? B. What would happen to your volume calculations if the length, width and height measurements were off a little? Exercise 3: Graphing data and the determination of ?Object Description| Diameter (cm)| Circumference (cm)| Measuring Device| Penny| 1. 90  ± 0. 01| 5. 93  ± 0. 03| Vernier caliper, paper| â€Å"D† cell battery| 3. 30  ± 0. 02| 10. 45  ± 0. 05| Vernier caliper, paper| PVC cylinder A| 4. 23  ± 0. 02| 13. 30  ± 0. 03| Vernier caliper, paper| PVC cylinder B| 6. 04  ± 0. 02| 18. 45  ± 0. 05| Plastic ruler, paper| Tomato soup can| 6. 6  ± 0. 1| 21. 2  ± 0. 1| Plastic ruler, paper| 5. Graph C vs. d using a computer spreadsheet program. 7. What is the slope of the line? What does it represent? 8. Calculate the percent error of your value from the true value of pi.Exercise 4: Density Measurements A. Which of the two volume determinations will be more accurate? Why? B. Research the Archimedes’ principle method. Write one paragraph explaining why it is called Archimedes’ principle Exercise 5: Time Measurements A. Which is more accurate, the individual times or the average? Explain. B. Sometimes many trials are run and recorded. Then the highest and lowest data points are disregarded when taking the average. Could this technique help in this experiment? How? C. Explain any differences that occurred between recording the data visually and aurally.

Information Based Decision Making - 3396 Words

Information Based Decision Making Terms of Reference .................................................................................................... 3 1. Be able to identify and select sources of data and information ............................ 4 Data and Information .............................................................................................. 4 Characteristics of Good Information ............................................................................... 6 Sources of Information ................................................................................................... 9 Nature of Information...................................................................................................... 9†¦show more content†¦STRATEGIC LEVEL At this level managers are largely concerned with long-term organisational planning. Decisions tend to be unstructured and are made infrequently. However, the decisions made at this level are likely to have a large impact on the organisation as a whole and cannot be reversed easily. An example of this might be a choice of new markets into which to move. At my place of work strategic decisions are mainly made by the senior management team. As a lecturer and course tutor, I would mainly fall into the operational level of decision making and am involved in the day-to-day planning and running of my tutor group. Although I am not a manager, as a senior member of the team I am sometimes also involved in strategic and tactical decisions. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD INFORMATION LO 1.1 †¢ VALID Information should be valid, as misinterpretations, inaccuracies and misinformation could impact badly on decisions that need to be taken. For example if a lecturer teaching a subject must make sure they using an up-to-date syllabus otherwise the students could be receiving information that is not valid for when they sit their exams. †¢ RELIABLE Information should be obtained from a reliable source to ensure that it is correct, particularly if the information will be used as a starting point for decision-making. ForShow MoreRelatedInformation Based Decision Making Essay3221 Words   |  13 Pages| Unit 5002 - Information based decision making | Stockton Riverside College | Michelle Morgan 4/1/2012 | Contents Introduction 3 Be able to identify and select sources of data and information 4 Be able to analyse and present information to support decision making 7 Be able to communicate results of information analysis and decisions 12 Appendices 14 Bibliography 14 Introduction The aim of this report is to look at information based decision making to help identifyRead MoreInformation Based Decision Making Essay2954 Words   |  12 Pages| Information based decision making | Unit 5002V1 | | | 4/1/2015 | Task 1 (600-700 words): A.C.1.1 – Examine the nature of data and information Data comprises of factual information. Data are the facts from which information is derived. Data is not necessarily informative on its own but needs to be structured, interpreted, analysed and contextualised. 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Effects of the Mongol Empire on Europe

In 1211, Genghis Khan (1167-1227) and his nomadic armies burst out from Mongolia and swiftly conquered most of Eurasia. The Great Khan died in 1227, but his sons and grandsons continued the expansion of the Mongol Empire across Central Asia, China, the Middle East, and into Europe.   Key Takeaways: Genghis Khan's Impact on Europe The spread of the bubonic plague from Central Asia into Europe decimated the populations but increased opportunities for the survivors.  Ã‚  An enormous variety of new consumer goods, agriculture, weaponry, religion, and medical science became available in Europe.  New diplomatic channels between Europe, Asia, and the Middle East were opened.  Russia became unified for the first time.   Starting in 1236, Genghis Khans third son, Ogodei, decided to conquer as much of Europe as he could. By 1240, the Mongols had control of what is now Russia and Ukraine, seizing Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary over the next few years. The Mongols also tried to capture Poland and Germany, but Ogodeis death in 1241 and the succession struggle that followed distracted them from this mission. In the end, the Mongols Golden Horde ruled over a vast swath of eastern Europe, and rumors of their approach terrified western Europe, but they went no farther west than Hungary. At their height, the rulers of the Mongol Empire conquered, occupied, and controlled more than twice the amount of land and twice the population as any other family in human history.   Shepherd, William. Historical Atlas. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1911/Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain The Mongol Invasion of Europe Reports of the Mongol attacks terrified Europe. The Mongols increased their empire using swift and decisive attacks with an armed and disciplined cavalry. They wiped out the populations of some entire towns that resisted, as was their usual policy, depopulating some regions and confiscating the crops and livestock from others. This type of total warfare spread panic even among Europeans not directly affected by the Mongol onslaught and sent refugees fleeing westward. Perhaps even more importantly, the Mongol conquest of central Asia and eastern Europe allowed a deadly disease — the bubonic plague — to travel from its home range in western China and Mongolia to Europe along newly-restored trade routes. The bubonic plague was endemic to fleas that live on marmots in the steppes of eastern central Asia, and the Mongol hordes inadvertently brought those fleas across the continent, unleashing the plague on Europe. Between 1300 and 1400, the Black Death killed about 35 percent of Chinas people, its population dropping from 115 million to 75 million. In Europe, an estimated 25 percent of the people died, decreased the population from an estimated 79 million to 60 million.   Positive Effects of the Mongols Although the Mongol invasion of Europe sparked terror and disease, in the long run, it had enormous positive impacts.  The foremost was what historians call the Pax Mongolica, a century of peace (circa 1280-1360) among neighboring peoples who were all under Mongol rule. This peace allowed for the reopening of the Silk Road trading routes between China and Europe, increasing cultural exchange and wealth all along the trade paths. Central Asia was a region that had always been important to overland trade between China and the West. As the region became stable under the Pax Mongolica, trade became less risky under the various empires, and as cross-cultural interactions became more and more intensive and extensive, more and more goods were traded.   Spread of Technology Within the Pax Mongolica, the sharing of knowledge, information, and cultural identity was encouraged. Citizens could legally become followers of Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Taoism, or anything else — as long as their practice didnt interfere with the political ambitions of the Khan. The Pax Mongolica also allowed monks, missionaries, traders, and explorers to travel along the trade routes. One famous example is the Venetian trader and explorer Marco Polo, who traveled to the court of Genghis Khans grandson Kublai Khan (Quibilai) at Xanadu in China.   Some of the most fundamental ideas and technologies in the world — papermaking, printing, and gunpowder manufacturing, among many others — made their way across Asia via the Silk Road. Migrants, merchants, explorers, pilgrims, refugees, and soldiers brought along with them their disparate religious and cultural ideas and domesticated animals, plants, flowers, vegetables, and fruit as they joined this gigantic cross-continental exchange. As historian Ma Debin describes it, the Silk Road was the original melting pot, the lifeline of the Eurasian continent. Effects of the Mongol Conquest Before the Mongol Empire, Europeans and Chinese were largely unaware of the others existence. Trade established along the Silk Road in the first centuries B.C.E. had become rare, dangerous, and unpredictable. Long-distance trade, human migration, and imperial expansion actively engaged people in different societies in significant cross-cultural interactions. Afterward, interactions between the two were not only possible but encouraged.  Ã‚   Diplomatic contacts and religious missions were established over vast distances. Islamic merchants helped gain a footing for their faith at the extreme ends of the Eastern Hemisphere, spreading from southeast Asia and west Africa and across northern India and Anatolia.   Alarmed, western Europeans and the Mongol rulers of China sought a diplomatic alliance with one another against the Muslims in southwest Asia. Europeans sought to convert Mongols to Christianity and establish a Christian community in China. The Mongols saw the spread as a threat. Neither of these initiatives was successful, but the opening of political channels made a substantive difference.   Transfer of Scientific Knowledge The entire overland route of the Silk Road witnessed a vigorous revival under the Pax Mongolica. Its rulers actively worked to ensure the safety of the trade routes, building effective post stations and rest stops, introducing the use of paper money and eliminating artificial trade barriers. By 1257, Chinese raw silk appeared in the silk-producing area of Italy, and in the 1330s, a single merchant sold thousands of pounds of silk in Genoa.   The Mongolians absorbed scientific knowledge from Persia, India, China, and Arabia. Medicine became one of the many areas of life and culture that flourished under Mongol rule. Keeping an army healthy was vital, so they created hospitals and training centers to encourage the exchange and expansion of medical knowledge. As a result, China employed doctors from India and the Middle East, all of which was communicated to European centers. Kublai Khan founded an institution for the study of Western medicine. The Persian historian Rashid al-Din (1247-1318) published the first known book on Chinese medicine outside China in 1313. Unification of Russia The Golden Hordes occupation of eastern Europe also unified Russia. Prior to the period of Mongol rule, the Russian people were organized into a series of small self-governing city-states, the most notable being Kiev. In order to throw off the Mongol yoke, the Russian-speaking peoples of the region had to unite. In 1480, the Russians — led by the Grand Duchy of Moscow (Muscovy) — managed to defeat and expel the Mongols. Although Russia has since been invaded several times by the likes of Napoleon Bonaparte and the German Nazis, it has never again been conquered. The Beginnings of Modern Fighting Tactics One final contribution that the Mongols made to Europe is difficult to categorize as good or bad. The Mongols introduced two deadly Chinese inventions — guns and gunpowder — to the West. The new weaponry sparked a revolution in European fighting tactics, and the many warring states of Europe all strove over the following centuries to improve their firearms technology. It was a constant, multisided arms race, which heralded the end of knightly combat and the beginning of modern standing armies. In the centuries to come, European states would muster their new and improved guns first for piracy, to seize control over parts of the oceangoing silk and spices trade, and then eventually to impose European colonial rule over much of the world. Ironically, the Russians used their superior firepower in the 19th and 20th centuries to conquer many of the lands that had been part of the Mongol Empire, including outer Mongolia where Genghis Khan was born. Sources   Bentley, Jerry H. Cross-Cultural Interaction and Periodization in World History. The American Historical Review, Vol. 101, No. 3, Oxford University Press, JSTOR, June 1996. Davis-Kimball, Jeannine. Asia, Central, Steppes. Encyclopedia of Archaeology, Academic Press, ScienceDirect, 2008. Di Cosmo, Nicola. Black Sea Emporia and the Mongol Empire: A Reassessment of the Pax Mongolica. 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